The caliph Harun al-Rashid first sparked an interest in mathematics when his reign began in 786 A.D. by encouraging the knowledgeable mathematicians and scientists of the time to relinquish the then-forgotten works of famous Greek scholars such as Euclid, Archimedes, and Ptolemy and begin studying and translating them. As the Greeks had originally laid down the foundation for modern mathematics with their work in geometry, the advent of newly-translated Greek works undoubtedly encouraged scholars to explore the field even further.

Perhaps the most notable Muslim scholar was the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is credited for the discovery of algebra. Khwarizmi began his career at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad by studying the newly-invented decimal system and idea of a set of numerals that have become the nine Arabic numerals we know today. He also read the works of Euclid extensively, using the Greek’s discoveries in geometry as a basis for much of his work.

From this research, Khwarizmi began to develop a form of mathematics that grouped rational numbers, irrational numbers, geometric magnitudes, and other mathematical figures into one discipline that followed a specific set of rules. He was the first to understand and discuss the principle of exponents, roots, and how they are equal to numbers (although our modern-day notation was not invented until the 16^th century¹).

Khwarizmi wrote and published his findings in one of the most famous books in all of mathematics: Al-Kitab Al-Mukhtasar fi Hisab al-Jabr wa’l Mugabala, or in English, The Book on Calculations by Completion and Balancing. It is from the title of Khwarizmi’s book that the name for this new form of mathematics, algebra (or al-jabr), was given. This “gave mathematics a whole new development path so much broader in concept to that which had existed before, and provided a vehicle for future development of the subject.”²

In addition to algebra, Khwarizmi also lent his name to what are now known as algorithms, penning another book, Liber Algorismi de Numero Indorum (”Khwarizmi’s Book on Indian Numerals”), on the subject. He helped discover the tangent function by drawing detailed trigonometric tables on the sine function, and also found differentiation by developing the calculus of two errors. Modern mathematics as we know it today would not exist without the invaluable contributions of Khwarizmi.

However, Khwarizmi is not the only Muslim mathematician to whom we are indebted. Other notable Muslim scholars include:

al-Karaji, who not only founded a school of algebra but also freed algebra from the confines of geometry, laid down many of its most important rules, and began to develop numerical analysis with decimals;

Ibrahim ibn Sina, known as Avicenna in the West, who advanced the field of geometry by refining Archimedes’s original integration method and studied optics to learn more about how conic sections could be applied to find algebraic solutions; and

al-Baghdadi or Ibn Tahir, whose book, al Takmila fi’l Hisab, clarified the arithmetic systems used by scholars at the time and helped disprove many false claims made by Western mathematicians about algebraic theories during the Renaissance.

Although mathematics may seem like a bore to us now, the advances that Muslim mathematicians made during the Islamic empire by debunking the work of intellectuals that came both before and after their lifetimes are invaluable to modern-day society. So the next time you have to open up your math textbook and stare at page after page of problems, you can take comfort in the fact that there were truly intelligent and gifted Muslims before you who made learning how to solve all of those problems immensely worthwhile.

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¹ Algebra’s Father
² Arabic Mathematics

Mathematicians improved upon works of the early Greeks, scientists experimented with new discoveries, astrologists perfected the science of the lunar calendar, and map-makers made the most accurate maps to be found. Even ordinary merchants and sailors helped give rise to this “Golden Age”: through their travels, other countries came into contact with the manners and practices of Islam, many adopting these customs.

As the Islamic Empire grew, it touched borders far past the Middle East. To the west, North Africa was conquered, giving a foothold with which to gain parts of Europe, particularly Spain. To the east, South Asia was won, and through India, the Muslims reached China and Southeast Asia as well.

Traders, merchants, sailors, and other middle-class tradesmen made their way east on trade routes (such as the Silk Road) through Asia, interacting with others and exposing them to the Muslim culture they carried with them. They were known for their incredible manners and honesty when dealing in business, and led an example for the merchants of their time. Their demonstration of Islamic values attracted many to their religion. In this way, many Chinese people became Muslim, and the areas of Malaysia and Indonesia adopted Islam. Today, because of this, both Malaysia and Indonesia are predominantly Muslim with an abundance of Islamic culture, and Indonesia has the highest Muslim population in the world.

To the west, Muslim culture spread to Europe, leaving traces in architecture, language, philosophy, and government, especially in Spain. The Islamic Empire ruled over Spain for about 800 years, with people of all religions living together peacefully. The great Muslim thinkers in Spain influenced their philosophy; Islam affected their values, and Arabic words gradually came into use in the Spanish language. Much of the architecture also has an Arab/Muslim touch, and there are still countless mosques throughout the country.

The Islamic Empire also took on the culture of those areas they conquered, making the art, literature, philosophy, and perceptions vary from region to region of the Empire. This is why there is no uniform kind of Islamic art, literature, or architecture.
During the 9th century, books on astrology and math were imported to Baghdad; the Muslims would then translate these and other works at the House of Wisdom, which, on top of being the knowledge capital of the world, also served as a library where books would be gathered to translate into Arabic. Some of the first works to be translated were Euclid’s Elements and Ptolemy’s Great Work. Later, the Muslims would be the ones to translate these books into Latin for use by the Europeans.

With the aid of these translations, the Muslims expanded on old ideas, conducted experiments, and made new discoveries. The fields of mathematics and science flourished at this time, especially from the 9th century to the 14th century. Early in this time, math was done for practical uses, like trading and banking. Muslim mathematicians developed the standard numerals we use today (0, 1, 2, 3…) and the decimal/placeholder system (like how the zero in “10” stands for a place and it isn’t read as “one”). Al Khwarizmi, a famous mathematician, combined these digits and system with the Greek concepts. The book he wrote on this was so important and popular that it was translated into many languages and distributed all over the world. Another book Al Khwarizmi wrote was “Al Jabr Wal Muqabala” , or Algebra (which comes from the first part of the title – “Al Jabr”). It covered things like quadratic equations, simple geometry and linear equations, along with a long section of how to apply these concepts to solve inheritance problems.

Scientists translated works of Greek philosophy and science. They experimented with light and vision, setting the base for modern optics and establishing the need for experiments. Al Biruni wrote about sociology and geography. Ibn Sina wrote The Canons of Medicine, which is a million-word encyclopedia, and was the first to recognize that tuberculosis is contagious, identify meningitis, and describe the every part of the eye.

Mapmakers and geographists perfected their trade. Muslims made many innovations in this field, because this was needed to find the Qibla (direction to Mecca). Astrologists also continued to make better guides and better lunar calendars, which helped to accurately find out, for example, when Ramadan would start and end.

The Islamic Empire was at the height of its time. Just as most institutes today use the English language, institutes of learning all over the world used Arabic. It was the symbol of intellect, intelligence, and art. These great advancements and knowledge would continue to flourish within the Islamic Empire for over five centuries and eventually lead the rest of the world towards enlightenment.

MuslimGirl.net is covering the entire history of the Islamic Empire in the 30 days of Ramadan 2009! Click here to see the entire series.

The Abbasid Caliphate was first created in Harran in 750 C.E., after the Umayyad Caliphate power was overthrown. This new Caliphate would be built by Abdullah Ibn Al-Abbas, the son of Prophet Muhammad’s uncle Abbas Ibn Abdul-Muttalib, while the Umayyad Caliphate had descended from Umayya, which at this point in time had set up their own rule in Spain.

Abu Al-Abbas Abdullah As-Saffah was the first caliph to hold power, hence the name of the empire.  Reigning from 749 C.E. to 754 C.E.,  As-Saffah sought to rebuild the caliphate after the Umayyads, building a new government that contained a various assortment of Jews, Nestorian Christians, and Persians, who were well represented during his rule, and later successive rulers of the Abbasid administration. As-Saffah also encouraged education; under his lead, the world’s first paper mills were set up in Samarkland. His military army was revolutionary, as he focused on recruiting Muslims, as well as non-Muslims. As-Saffah was a strong and fierce Abbasid leader, but unfortunately his period of rule was short. When he died in 754 C.E., his brother Abu Jafar al-Mansur took his place, and then later, Isa ibn Musa. The Abbasid Caliphate continued to live on as a line of successors ruled the dynasty, until the last Abbasid caliph was overthrown in 1258.

Unlike the Umayyad Caliphate, whom focused their attention on the west, the Abbasids turned their rule of power eastward. Interaction with surrounding regions was dominant, as events in places like Persia and Transoxania were closely watched. In fact, a majority of support for the caliphate came from Persian converts, so it wasn’t a surprise to see their government heavily based on Persian tradition. The Abbasids also based their rulings on Islamic Law and Islam, and encouraged the unity of the Muslim community as a whole, rather than just toward Arab nationalities. While Islamic culture and tradition strengthened with the Umayyads, it permanently established itself in the first century of Abbasid rule, and continued to prosper even further as the reign of the caliphs Al-Mansur, Harun Ar-Rashid, and Al-Ma’mun brought along perhaps the most heightening point of Abbasid rule at the time – the Islamic Golden Age.

The Islamic Golden Age (also sometimes known as the Islamic Renaissance) was a magnificent period of education and intellect that swept the 8^th century and brought great progress to the dynasty. The Abbasids were incredibly fond of knowledge and were inspired by many Qur’an and Hadith injunctions that encouraged its acquirement, so they sought to implement it into their rule as much as possible. When the Abbasids moved their capital to Baghdad, the caliphate leader Al-Ma’mun encouraged the construction of the “House of Wisdom” (Dar-ul-Hikma), which became the center of learning for the world where both Muslims and non-Muslim scholars from every land came to share knowledge. The Abbasids’ passion for learning opened up the doors to new discoveries, especially in the fields of science, literature, and technology. For science, discoveries were made and pioneered by many remarkable thinkers: the concept of Algebra was developed by the scientist al-Khawarizmi, who is now considered to be the “father of Algebra”; the study of optics by Ibn al-Haytham, who is considered to be the ”father of Optics”; and Astronomy, which was advanced considerably by Al-Battani. The study of medicine, too, advanced during the Abbasid era; in fact, Baghdad contained over 800 doctors who developed the majority of knowledge about disease and illness. The famous scientist, Ibn Sina, is known as the “father of medicine” for his encyclopedias The Canon of Medicine and The Book of Healing, which he produced for the purpose of gathering the vast amount of knowledge discovered by the scientists of the time.

Literature also advanced significantly during the Abbasid era as well, as a wide variety of works – from poetry to informative texts – were produced.  The most famous piece of fiction that was developed during the time was “The Book of One Thousand and One Nights”, which was said to have been inspired by pre-Islamic Persian and Indian elements. It also includes elements from other Middle Eastern and African nations as well. “The Book of One Thousand and One Nights” was created in the 10th century and reached its final form in the 14th century. To this day, the book’s classic characters such as Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor, and Ali Baba continue to inspire many people in the West, who have grown fascinated with their adventures. It’s amazing to see that a book of tales written centuries ago could still capture the attention of many readers today!

Technology undeniably developed in remarkable ways under the Abbasid Caliphate. Many inventions such as gunpowder and papermills were developed and established abundantly. An “agricultural revolution” rapidly flourished during this time as well, while early industries for clocks, glass, ceramics, matting, mosaics, and astromical instruments took form. These breakthrough accomplishments paved the way for the later technological advances that would soon arrive in European countries and other eastern regions in years to come.

The Abbasid era had an immense and everlasting impact on humanity. Without their leadership and advancements, today’s world would be far from what it is today.

MuslimGirl.net is covering the entire history of the Islamic Empire in the 30 days of Ramadan 2009! Click here to see the entire series.

¹ Karen Armstrong(1993). A History of God. Ballantine Books. p. 171
1. Abbasid Dynasty – Britannica
2. Abbasids – MSN Encarta
3. Abbasids – General Information
4. As-Saffah – Wikipedia
5. The Abbasid Caliphate – Wikipedia